One of the most popular violent gaming formats to date is the First Person Shooter (FPS), in which the gamer experiences the action through the eyes of the main protagonist, centred on a projectile weapon. These findings lend support to the processes involved in the GAM. More specifically, increases in experience of perceived difficulty, enjoyment and action have yielded significant game effects on aggressive thoughts. Sherry identified that video games that portray human violence were associated with increases in levels of aggression, potentially due to higher rates of action, and subsequent heightened nonspecific arousal.
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Carnagey and Anderson found that rewarding violence increased in-game violence and that rewards for killing other racing drivers and pedestrians, in the race-car video game Carmageddon 2, increased levels of hostile emotion, aggressive thinking and aggressive behaviour. Within specific violent video games, progression through gaming levels achieved by engaging in violence poses an additional risk of increasing levels of aggression. Based on previous studies, engagement with/against human opponents may strengthen gaming experiences and therefore, in accordance with the GAM, heighten their effects on players' thoughts, feelings and behaviour.Īs noted above, violent content within violent video games has also been identified to increase levels of aggression. Further to this, Wei found, from a survey of 312 Chinese adolescents, that those who played violent video games online against human opponents expressed a greater tolerance of violence, a lower empathetic attitude and more aggressive behaviour than those who played against computer opponents. In regards to the negative effects, increases in aggressive thoughts and hostile expectations have been found when playing human opponents in a violent video game. Significant differences in physiological arousal and evaluations of game experience, including presence and likability, have also been found when video game opponents are controlled by other humans. Schubert, Regenbrecht and Friedmann found that players who interact with other human players experience a heightened sense of being part of the action. Technological developments have afforded such games, and subsequent gaming experience, to expand beyond the realms of the console, and computer programmed opponents (offline gaming), and now allow players to engage in video game play with multiple players from all over the world via the internet (online gaming). Therefore the GAM can explain how properties of a video game can affect players' thoughts, feelings, physiological arousal and subsequent behaviour.
In the long term aggressive scripts can develop and become more readily available. Thus, in the short term a violent video game may temporarily increase aggression through the activation of one or more of these domains. A widely accepted model for understanding media effects, the GAM posits that cognition, affect and arousal mediate an individual's perception of a situation. Much of the research that has provided evidence to indicate the negative effects of violent video games has utilised the General Aggression Model (GAM). On balance however, evidence from meta-analyses confirm that exposure to violent video games increases aggressive cognitions, aggressive affect and aggressive behaviour, and decreases empathy and prosocial behaviour. It should be noted, however, that there is other research showing no evidence that engagement with violent video games leads to increases in aggression or reductions in prosocial behaviour –, warranting the need for further research in this area. Finally, experimental studies have revealed that playing violent video games is a causal risk factor for increased aggression –. Longitudinal studies showed that habitual violent video game play predicts later aggression even after controlling for initial levels of aggressiveness –. Indeed, cross-sectional studies have found positive correlations between violent video game play and real-life aggression –. Research into the effect of violent video games on levels of aggression has led to concerns that they may pose a public health risk. Violent video games have previously been identified to be the most popular video games played by consumers. 2011 industry figures have identified that game sales, including platform and digital, have exceeded both music and video sales. The video game industry is now the largest entertainment industry in the UK.
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